Friday, June 13, 2008
Tuesday, March 4, 2008
COMPUTER LIMATATIONS
Although computers are powerful and even marvelous tools, they have limitations. Thus, they can't be used indiscriminately .
Major Limitations of Computers:
1. Dependence on Prepared Instructions. The computer performs only what is programmed to do and nothing else. It can do much more than just add, subtract, multiply, and divide. By using instructions, it can sort data, straighten data out and store it away for you. Instructions allow the computer to compare two numbers, to find out if one is larger than, smaller than, or equal to the other. All these can only be possible if the computer is given the correct instructions. It can never do things by itself.
2. Inability to Derive Meanings from Objects. A computer does not have feelings. It is unable to recognize and respond to living objects. Accordingly, the meanings of objects such as data or programs, it deals with mean nothing to the computer. Whatever meanings the computer deals with are only fed to it by the programmer.
3. Inability to Generate Information. The computer cannot generate information own its own. It is not able to think and perceive relevant aspects of a given situation and adopt means to fulfill a goal or course of action. A computer has the capacity to put information together from many sources, only if properly programmed, but never independently.
4. It Cannot Correct Wring Instructions. The computer will do exactly what you instruct it to do, regardless of what you mean. It cannot decipher the correct instructions from the wrong instructions. It does not have the ability to select and perform only the rights.
Major Limitations of Computers:
1. Dependence on Prepared Instructions. The computer performs only what is programmed to do and nothing else. It can do much more than just add, subtract, multiply, and divide. By using instructions, it can sort data, straighten data out and store it away for you. Instructions allow the computer to compare two numbers, to find out if one is larger than, smaller than, or equal to the other. All these can only be possible if the computer is given the correct instructions. It can never do things by itself.
2. Inability to Derive Meanings from Objects. A computer does not have feelings. It is unable to recognize and respond to living objects. Accordingly, the meanings of objects such as data or programs, it deals with mean nothing to the computer. Whatever meanings the computer deals with are only fed to it by the programmer.
3. Inability to Generate Information. The computer cannot generate information own its own. It is not able to think and perceive relevant aspects of a given situation and adopt means to fulfill a goal or course of action. A computer has the capacity to put information together from many sources, only if properly programmed, but never independently.
4. It Cannot Correct Wring Instructions. The computer will do exactly what you instruct it to do, regardless of what you mean. It cannot decipher the correct instructions from the wrong instructions. It does not have the ability to select and perform only the rights.
Sunday, February 24, 2008
COMPUTER CAPABILITIES
Many have pictured computer systems as having human or superhuman traits. Such views tend to exaggerate certain computer capabilities. The computer has also been described to be dumb machine since it is dependent entirely on those who control it. Use the wrong or faulty program, or use the wrong or inaccurate data, and you will get the wrong answer. The computer cannot think for itself. What is can do is extend man's problem-solving capabilities by performing many arithmetic, logic, branching and input/output instructions with lightning speed. It is powerful tool for extending man's brain power. It may be rightly called an intelligence amplifier.
Computers can enlarge man's brainpower because of the following capabilities and properties which had lead to the human or superhuman images created about it.
1. Ability to Perform Certain Logic Operations. Computers are symbol manipulators. It can manipulate in logical ways letter, numbers, words, sentences, mathematical expressions and other symbols to which people have giving meaning. It is able to perform a simple comparison and then, depending on the result, follow one of two or more predetermined branches or courses of action. This simple ability to compare is an important computer capability because more sophisticated questions can be answered by using combinations of comparison decisions.
2. Ability to Provide New Time Dimensions. The computer works one step at a time; it adds and subtracts numbers; it multiples and divides numbers; and it can be programmed to perform other mathematical operations. What is significant is the speed with which the computer can perform them. The computer is so fast that is saves a tremendous amount of time.
3. Ability to Store and Retrieve Information. The computer stores in internal storage both facts and instructions. The ease with which instructions can be changed gives the computer great flexibility . The access time required for information to be recalled from internal storage and be available for use is measured in microseconds or more precise units. Few machines that are used by man have this stored program ability.
4. Ability to control error. It has been estimated that a person would make one error in every 500- 1000 operations with a desk calculator. A computer can performed hundreds of thousands of arithmetic operations every second and can run error less for hours and days at a time.
5. Ability to Check Itself. Computers have the ability to check its own work. By a method known as parity checking, computers check on data when they enter storage, when they are moved internally, and when they leave in the form of output. The parity check performed by the computer involves the examination of each character's code to determine whether bits have been added or lost by mistake
Computers can enlarge man's brainpower because of the following capabilities and properties which had lead to the human or superhuman images created about it.
1. Ability to Perform Certain Logic Operations. Computers are symbol manipulators. It can manipulate in logical ways letter, numbers, words, sentences, mathematical expressions and other symbols to which people have giving meaning. It is able to perform a simple comparison and then, depending on the result, follow one of two or more predetermined branches or courses of action. This simple ability to compare is an important computer capability because more sophisticated questions can be answered by using combinations of comparison decisions.
2. Ability to Provide New Time Dimensions. The computer works one step at a time; it adds and subtracts numbers; it multiples and divides numbers; and it can be programmed to perform other mathematical operations. What is significant is the speed with which the computer can perform them. The computer is so fast that is saves a tremendous amount of time.
3. Ability to Store and Retrieve Information. The computer stores in internal storage both facts and instructions. The ease with which instructions can be changed gives the computer great flexibility . The access time required for information to be recalled from internal storage and be available for use is measured in microseconds or more precise units. Few machines that are used by man have this stored program ability.
4. Ability to control error. It has been estimated that a person would make one error in every 500- 1000 operations with a desk calculator. A computer can performed hundreds of thousands of arithmetic operations every second and can run error less for hours and days at a time.
5. Ability to Check Itself. Computers have the ability to check its own work. By a method known as parity checking, computers check on data when they enter storage, when they are moved internally, and when they leave in the form of output. The parity check performed by the computer involves the examination of each character's code to determine whether bits have been added or lost by mistake
Monday, February 18, 2008
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ACCORDING TO CAPACITY
The term "capacity" refers to the volume of work or the data processing capacity a computer can handle. Their performance is judged by the:
1. Amount of data that can be stored in memory
2. speed of internal operation of the computer
3. number and type of of peripheral devices
4. amount and type of software available for use with the computer
The capacity of early generation computers were determined by their physical size- the large the size, the greater the volume. In computer terms, size and speed of operation are at present proportionate to each other. Generally, though, recent, technology is tending to create smaller machines, making it possible to package equivalent speed and capacity in a smaller format.
1. Amount of data that can be stored in memory
2. speed of internal operation of the computer
3. number and type of of peripheral devices
4. amount and type of software available for use with the computer
The capacity of early generation computers were determined by their physical size- the large the size, the greater the volume. In computer terms, size and speed of operation are at present proportionate to each other. Generally, though, recent, technology is tending to create smaller machines, making it possible to package equivalent speed and capacity in a smaller format.
Computer System Classification
1. MICROCOMPUTERS= The mass production of silicon chips since 1971 has made it possible to put a "brain"into all sorts of machines. One such machine is the microcomputer. This machines has takes fullest advantage of the use of large-scale integration on silicon chips. The microprocessors literally contain a computer on a chip that can pass through the eye of needle. Microcomputers memories are generally made of semiconductors fabricated on silicons chips. It is a digital computer system under the control of a stored program that uses a microprocessor, a programmable read-only memory (ROM), and a random-access memory (RAM), The ROM defines the instructions to be executed by the computer while RAM is the functional equivalent of computer memory.
2. MINICOMPUTERS= Technological advances in the 1960's enabled manufactures to respond to the growing demand for a similar stand-alone machine, the minicomputer, to handle task that large computers could not perform economically. Minicomputer system (or small mainframe computers) provide faster operating speeds and larger storage capacities than microcomputers systems. They can support a large number of high-speed input/output devices. Several desk drives can be used to provide online access to large data files as required for direct- access processing.
Operating system developed for minicomputer systems generally support both multiprogramming and virtual storage. This means that many programs can be run concurrently. This type of computer system is very flexible and can be expanded to meet the needs of users.
Minicomputers usually have from 8k to 256K memory storage locations, and a relatively established applications software. although the minicomputer is not as powerful as the medium or large-size computer, it is quite close.
3. MEDIUM-SIZE COMPUTERS= it provide faster operating speeds and larger storage capabilities than small computer systems. They can support a large number of high-speed input-output devices, and several disk drives can be used to provide online access processing. Also support both multiprogramming and virtual storage. This allows the running of a variety of programs concurrently.
Medium-size computer system are very flexible; they can be expanded to meet the needs of users. The possibility of increasing the data processing capability of a computer by adding devices, such additional memory, and other peripheral devices, is called expandability.
4. LARGE COMPUTERS=are the ultimate in system sophistication, flexibility, and speed. They usually contain full control systems with minimal operator intervention. Large computer systems range from single-processing configurations to nationwide computer based networks involving general large computers. Large computers have storage capacities from 512K to 819K, and these computers have internal operating speeds measured in terms of nanoseconds, as a compared to smaller computers where speed in terms of microseconds.
5. SUPERCOMPUTERS= The biggest and fastest machines today are the supercomputers that are used when billions or even trillions of calculations are needed. These machines are essential for applications ranging from nuclear weapon to accurate weather forecasting.
Supercomputers are machines that have capabilities far beyond even the traditional large scale systems. Their speed is in the 100-million-instructions-per-second range.
2. MINICOMPUTERS= Technological advances in the 1960's enabled manufactures to respond to the growing demand for a similar stand-alone machine, the minicomputer, to handle task that large computers could not perform economically. Minicomputer system (or small mainframe computers) provide faster operating speeds and larger storage capacities than microcomputers systems. They can support a large number of high-speed input/output devices. Several desk drives can be used to provide online access to large data files as required for direct- access processing.
Operating system developed for minicomputer systems generally support both multiprogramming and virtual storage. This means that many programs can be run concurrently. This type of computer system is very flexible and can be expanded to meet the needs of users.
Minicomputers usually have from 8k to 256K memory storage locations, and a relatively established applications software. although the minicomputer is not as powerful as the medium or large-size computer, it is quite close.
3. MEDIUM-SIZE COMPUTERS= it provide faster operating speeds and larger storage capabilities than small computer systems. They can support a large number of high-speed input-output devices, and several disk drives can be used to provide online access processing. Also support both multiprogramming and virtual storage. This allows the running of a variety of programs concurrently.
Medium-size computer system are very flexible; they can be expanded to meet the needs of users. The possibility of increasing the data processing capability of a computer by adding devices, such additional memory, and other peripheral devices, is called expandability.
4. LARGE COMPUTERS=are the ultimate in system sophistication, flexibility, and speed. They usually contain full control systems with minimal operator intervention. Large computer systems range from single-processing configurations to nationwide computer based networks involving general large computers. Large computers have storage capacities from 512K to 819K, and these computers have internal operating speeds measured in terms of nanoseconds, as a compared to smaller computers where speed in terms of microseconds.
5. SUPERCOMPUTERS= The biggest and fastest machines today are the supercomputers that are used when billions or even trillions of calculations are needed. These machines are essential for applications ranging from nuclear weapon to accurate weather forecasting.
Supercomputers are machines that have capabilities far beyond even the traditional large scale systems. Their speed is in the 100-million-instructions-per-second range.
Wednesday, February 13, 2008
CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE OF DATA HANDLED
There are essentially two different types of computer processing. Each is made possible by a different kind of circuitry , and each is suitable for different purposes.
1. Analog Computers = The name analog comes from the word "analogous", meaning similar. Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and process control purposes. Because they deal with quantities that are continuously variable., they give only approximate results. This types of computer provides an analog or simulation of the object or system it represents. It is especially useful for solving problems that involve relationships between variable quantities in systems that change with time. The analog compute may express changing relationships in output in the form of graphs. It is able to create such pictures because it responds to changes in electrical voltages that match changes in variable quantities.
2. Digital Computers = Is a machine the specializes in counting. It operates by counting values that are discrete, or separate and distinct, unlike the continuous quantities that can be measured by the analog computer. Digital Computers are used for both business data processing and accuracy. The basic operation performed by a digital computer is addition. It can store the sums of addition problems as they accumulate, and can complete a single calculation in a fraction of a nanosecond. The digital computer is capable of storing data as long as needed, performing logical operations, editing input data, and printing out the results of its processing at hight speed.
3. Hybrid Computers= Although both analog and digital computers are extremely used in widely accepted in various industries, manufacturers have to attempted to designed a computer that combines the best features of both types. This special-purpose machine called a hybrid, computer, combines the measuring capabilities of the analog computer and the logical and control capabilities of the digital computer. It offers an efficient and economical method of working out special types of problems in science and various areas of engineering. Some Hybrid machines contain special equipment to convert analog voltages into digital voltages,and vice-versa.
1. Analog Computers = The name analog comes from the word "analogous", meaning similar. Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and process control purposes. Because they deal with quantities that are continuously variable., they give only approximate results. This types of computer provides an analog or simulation of the object or system it represents. It is especially useful for solving problems that involve relationships between variable quantities in systems that change with time. The analog compute may express changing relationships in output in the form of graphs. It is able to create such pictures because it responds to changes in electrical voltages that match changes in variable quantities.
2. Digital Computers = Is a machine the specializes in counting. It operates by counting values that are discrete, or separate and distinct, unlike the continuous quantities that can be measured by the analog computer. Digital Computers are used for both business data processing and accuracy. The basic operation performed by a digital computer is addition. It can store the sums of addition problems as they accumulate, and can complete a single calculation in a fraction of a nanosecond. The digital computer is capable of storing data as long as needed, performing logical operations, editing input data, and printing out the results of its processing at hight speed.
3. Hybrid Computers= Although both analog and digital computers are extremely used in widely accepted in various industries, manufacturers have to attempted to designed a computer that combines the best features of both types. This special-purpose machine called a hybrid, computer, combines the measuring capabilities of the analog computer and the logical and control capabilities of the digital computer. It offers an efficient and economical method of working out special types of problems in science and various areas of engineering. Some Hybrid machines contain special equipment to convert analog voltages into digital voltages,and vice-versa.
Monday, February 11, 2008
CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS BY PURPOSE
Digital computers may be utilized for either special or general purposes.
1. General-Purpose Computers= This machines have the capability of dealing with variety of different problems, and are able to act in response to programs created to meet different needs. A general-purpose computer is one that has the ability to store different programs of instruction and thus to perform a variety of operations.
2. Special-Purpose Computers = as to the name implies, is designed to perform one specific tasks. The program of instructions is built into, or permanently stored in the machine. Specialization results in the given task being preformed very quickly and efficiently. Most special purpose computers have the capability of performing just one task. They are frequently referred to us "dedicated," because of their limitations to the specific task at hand.
1. General-Purpose Computers= This machines have the capability of dealing with variety of different problems, and are able to act in response to programs created to meet different needs. A general-purpose computer is one that has the ability to store different programs of instruction and thus to perform a variety of operations.
2. Special-Purpose Computers = as to the name implies, is designed to perform one specific tasks. The program of instructions is built into, or permanently stored in the machine. Specialization results in the given task being preformed very quickly and efficiently. Most special purpose computers have the capability of performing just one task. They are frequently referred to us "dedicated," because of their limitations to the specific task at hand.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
There is an almost bewildering variety of computers, and the number of models available is rapidly growing. To some extent this variety is redundant; many machines are similar in capacity. But to a greater extent the variety of computers is related to important differences in capacity and functions.
The distinctions among the various categories of computers has been subject to controversy. Computers may be classified according to their purpose, according to the kind of processing they do or types of data they use, and also according to the size of the machine and the speed of its internal operations.
Speed of operation is often the most important consideration in deciding which equipment to choose for a particular task. With today's machines, It is generally true that the bigger the machine, the faster the operating speed.
The distinctions among the various categories of computers has been subject to controversy. Computers may be classified according to their purpose, according to the kind of processing they do or types of data they use, and also according to the size of the machine and the speed of its internal operations.
Speed of operation is often the most important consideration in deciding which equipment to choose for a particular task. With today's machines, It is generally true that the bigger the machine, the faster the operating speed.
Monday, February 4, 2008
THE COMPUTER
As the name implies the word" Computer" comes from the term to compute, meaning to calculate. It is one word which is used frequently theses days, and it is common knowledge that the widespread use of computers is having a tremendous effect on all aspects of human life, both from individual and social point of view.
The computer's storage capacity, or memory, does not yet equal that of human brain, but computer capacity is rapidly increasing. In the future, it will undoubtedly exceed that of the human memory.
In General, A computer is an electronic system designed to manipulate data. They are machines for storing, moving, adding, and subtracting, and evaluation data. All Computers have four basic functions in common: input, processing, storage, and output. This is a true of all computers, from the largest general purpose main frame to the smallest personal computer.
Since computer are, after all, only machines, they have no initiative and cannot do any useful work until they have been properly prepared. This is done by providing them with sequences of instructions called a Program. These instructions control the manner in which the computer carries out its operational functions. Again a computer will perform only what it is told to do; it does not have the ability to evaluate information and take appropriate action on its own.
The computer's storage capacity, or memory, does not yet equal that of human brain, but computer capacity is rapidly increasing. In the future, it will undoubtedly exceed that of the human memory.
In General, A computer is an electronic system designed to manipulate data. They are machines for storing, moving, adding, and subtracting, and evaluation data. All Computers have four basic functions in common: input, processing, storage, and output. This is a true of all computers, from the largest general purpose main frame to the smallest personal computer.
Since computer are, after all, only machines, they have no initiative and cannot do any useful work until they have been properly prepared. This is done by providing them with sequences of instructions called a Program. These instructions control the manner in which the computer carries out its operational functions. Again a computer will perform only what it is told to do; it does not have the ability to evaluate information and take appropriate action on its own.
Sunday, February 3, 2008
STORED PROGRAM CONCEPTS
Before a computer can actually read data, process it, and produce information, it must read a set of instructions called a program, which actually indicate what processing is required. Programs, like data, are stored in the computer. This arrangement is referred to as the stored-program concept.
In the same manner, any calculating operation involves a number of steps that must be spelled out to the computer: reading, locating numbers in storage, performing the actual calculation, placing the result in storage, and writing out that result at the appropriate time. A calculation procedure, therefore is composed of a sequence of individual steps that leads to desired result. The steps are coded as instructions and read into the computer as part of a stored programs to direct processing.
It is a stored program that makes the computer" Automatic." Once the program is loaded and processing is initiated, the stored-program instructions are executed, one after another. No further human intervention is required.
A computer can solve a seemingly infinite variety of problems. To solve a particular problem, one has only to load a program designed to solve that type of problem into the internal storage unit of the computer. Any of the common input devices can be used to do this, because instructions.
The task of writing a series of instructions to direct the operations of a computer is called" Programming". The person who writes the instructions is called a "Programmer".
It is possible for more than one program to be stored in the computer at any given time. The only requirement is that sufficient storage locations are available for both the programs and necessary data. This is a termed multiprogramming.
Since only one instructions can be executed t a time, simultaneous execution of instructions from different programs is not possible. However, the computer can execute instructions from one program, then instructions from another program, then instructions from the the first program again, and so on. This type of processing is called concurrent processing.
In the same manner, any calculating operation involves a number of steps that must be spelled out to the computer: reading, locating numbers in storage, performing the actual calculation, placing the result in storage, and writing out that result at the appropriate time. A calculation procedure, therefore is composed of a sequence of individual steps that leads to desired result. The steps are coded as instructions and read into the computer as part of a stored programs to direct processing.
It is a stored program that makes the computer" Automatic." Once the program is loaded and processing is initiated, the stored-program instructions are executed, one after another. No further human intervention is required.
A computer can solve a seemingly infinite variety of problems. To solve a particular problem, one has only to load a program designed to solve that type of problem into the internal storage unit of the computer. Any of the common input devices can be used to do this, because instructions.
The task of writing a series of instructions to direct the operations of a computer is called" Programming". The person who writes the instructions is called a "Programmer".
It is possible for more than one program to be stored in the computer at any given time. The only requirement is that sufficient storage locations are available for both the programs and necessary data. This is a termed multiprogramming.
Since only one instructions can be executed t a time, simultaneous execution of instructions from different programs is not possible. However, the computer can execute instructions from one program, then instructions from another program, then instructions from the the first program again, and so on. This type of processing is called concurrent processing.
Friday, February 1, 2008
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING
Electronic data processing systems are built to boost productivity and to improve the quality of work. They achieve these goals in several ways.
1. Speed = Since a computer is an electronic device, it operates as the speed of electric flow which is measured in billionths and trillionths of a second. It is faster than any other machine designed to do similar work. At such speeds, a computer can solve in less than a minute problems that would take at least ten hours on a punched card data processing system.
2. Accuracy= High speed processing by computers is accompanied by high-accuracy results. The electronic circuitry of computers is such that, when the machines are programmed correctly and when relatively assured. No other system can operate with as much accuracy as the electronic system.
A computer can be considered as 100% accurate. Checking circuits are built directly into the computer, so that computer errors that are undetected are extremely rare. Because of the speed and accuracy, computer systems are capable of processing large amounts of data more cheaply than if manual methods are used.
3. Automatic Operation = An electronic computer can carry out a sequence of many data processing operations without human intervention. The various operations are executed automatically by way of a stored computer program.
4.Decision Making capability= A computer can perform certain decision instructions automatically. Here a decision consist of two steps.
a. Determining whether a certain statement is true or false.
b. Based on the result, choosing one or the other course of action out of of alternatives included in the computer program.
5. Compact Storage= Electronic data processing systems have the ability to store large amounts of data in a compact ans easily retrievable form.
6. Discipline it Imposses= To solve a problem with a computer you must, first, understand the problem, and second, program the computer to give you the right answers. Understanding a problem is one thing, but understanding it to depth of detail and insight required to program the computer is a completely different matters.
1. Speed = Since a computer is an electronic device, it operates as the speed of electric flow which is measured in billionths and trillionths of a second. It is faster than any other machine designed to do similar work. At such speeds, a computer can solve in less than a minute problems that would take at least ten hours on a punched card data processing system.
2. Accuracy= High speed processing by computers is accompanied by high-accuracy results. The electronic circuitry of computers is such that, when the machines are programmed correctly and when relatively assured. No other system can operate with as much accuracy as the electronic system.
A computer can be considered as 100% accurate. Checking circuits are built directly into the computer, so that computer errors that are undetected are extremely rare. Because of the speed and accuracy, computer systems are capable of processing large amounts of data more cheaply than if manual methods are used.
3. Automatic Operation = An electronic computer can carry out a sequence of many data processing operations without human intervention. The various operations are executed automatically by way of a stored computer program.
4.Decision Making capability= A computer can perform certain decision instructions automatically. Here a decision consist of two steps.
a. Determining whether a certain statement is true or false.
b. Based on the result, choosing one or the other course of action out of of alternatives included in the computer program.
5. Compact Storage= Electronic data processing systems have the ability to store large amounts of data in a compact ans easily retrievable form.
6. Discipline it Imposses= To solve a problem with a computer you must, first, understand the problem, and second, program the computer to give you the right answers. Understanding a problem is one thing, but understanding it to depth of detail and insight required to program the computer is a completely different matters.
PEOPLEWARE
The term "peopleware" represents the personnel involved in systems analysis, programming, computer operations, system maintenance, and the like. Systems analysis and design are the jobs of the system analyst. Program development is the specialty of the programmer. System development is carried out by a computer operations, input data preparation staff, and output preparation clerks. Output preparation involves collating, bursting, and binding the reports before they are delivered to the user. Commonly, Analysts do some programming in addition to analysis.
Correspondingly, programmers do some systems work in addition to programming.
Correspondingly, programmers do some systems work in addition to programming.
Monday, January 28, 2008
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
For the EDP system to analyze data, update files, and print out information, it must have a programs designed for these purposes. Stored programs tell the computer what steps to take, what data to work on what to do with the results. Software commonly includes such programs as well as any operating aids that extend the capabilities of the computer.
Therefore, program in programming languages which combine precision of expression with a certain closeness to natural languages on the one hand and the problem to be solved on the other. Programs written in such languages are largely independent of the characteristics of a particular computer; they are usually easily portable from one machine to another.
Software also includes utility programs ( for example, sorting routines) that have been written by systems programmers, rather than users, and are stored in the memory of the computer system.
The operating system, along with the language translators, programs for data management and communication, and utilities programs, constitute the essential software of an electronic data processing system. An EDP system also contain" Firmware" or microcode instructions, developed by the computer manufacturer to permit tailoring of the system to meet particular data processing requirements.
Therefore, program in programming languages which combine precision of expression with a certain closeness to natural languages on the one hand and the problem to be solved on the other. Programs written in such languages are largely independent of the characteristics of a particular computer; they are usually easily portable from one machine to another.
Software also includes utility programs ( for example, sorting routines) that have been written by systems programmers, rather than users, and are stored in the memory of the computer system.
The operating system, along with the language translators, programs for data management and communication, and utilities programs, constitute the essential software of an electronic data processing system. An EDP system also contain" Firmware" or microcode instructions, developed by the computer manufacturer to permit tailoring of the system to meet particular data processing requirements.
Sunday, January 27, 2008
COMPUTER HARDWARE
The term hardware refers to the physical equipment or components of an electronic data processing system. It may also be referred to as a machinery that performs the machines of operations. Each component is designed to perform one or more of the following functions; data preparation, input, processing, storage, and input.
An electronic data processing system includes a number of functionality separate devices that constitute its hardware : the memory system where data and instructions are stored, and input/output devices for communication with environment of the system.
An electronic data processing system includes a number of functionality separate devices that constitute its hardware : the memory system where data and instructions are stored, and input/output devices for communication with environment of the system.
ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING
There are different types of data processing systems and each performs one or more required operation(s) on data by means of various devices. When a machine performs most of the required operation, the system is called an automatic data processing (ADP) system. More particularly, when that machine is an electronic digital computer, the system is described as an electronic data processing (EDP) system or simply as a computer system.
In the broadest terms, an electronic data processing consist of ; hardware, software, and people ware.
In electronic data processing, a user does not have to deal directly with the physical devices( hardware of the EDP system. Instead a special service programs, stored in the computer memory, provide an interface between the user and the equipment . These programs, called systems software, simply the task of the programmer and. the applications software control the use of the hardware.
In the broadest terms, an electronic data processing consist of ; hardware, software, and people ware.
In electronic data processing, a user does not have to deal directly with the physical devices( hardware of the EDP system. Instead a special service programs, stored in the computer memory, provide an interface between the user and the equipment . These programs, called systems software, simply the task of the programmer and. the applications software control the use of the hardware.
Tuesday, January 22, 2008
EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN ELECTROMAGNETIC DATA PROCESSING
All the early machine, except for Babbage's analytical engine, were essentially single- purpose devises. These machines were designed to perform a specific task or set of tasks. The major innovation of the first modern-age machines was its capability to perform automatically a long sequence of varied arithmetical and logical operations.
The completed device was known as the MARK I digital computer. The first electromagnetic digital computer to be put into full operation was built as a secret wartime project. This machine, which used vacuum tubes, was called the "ENIAC" computer. Following the war, work began on the "EDVAC", a computer which worked on the stored program concept.
1. MARK I = The official name of MARK I was Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. It was approximately 50 feet long and 8 feet high, and consisted of some 700,000 moving parts and several hundreds miles of wiring. The MARK I could perform the four basic arithmetic operations and could locate information stored in tabular form. It processed numbers up to 23 digits long, and could multiply three eight-digit numbers in a second. Internal operations were controlled automatically with electromagnetic relays and the arithmetical counters were mechanical. It was not an electronic computer but was rather an electromechanical one since it was powered by an electric motor ans used switches ad relays. It was also the first automatic general-purpose digital computer.
2. THE ENIAC = was developed during the the period 1943 to 1946. It was the first Large - scale vacuum-tubes computer. The ENIAC is an acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator. It consisted of over 18,000 vacuum tubes and required the manual setting of switches to achieve desired results. It could perform 300 multiplications per second. Operating instructions were not stored internally; rather they were fed trough externally located plugboards and switches.
3. THE EDVAC = In 1946 a Hungarian-born mathematician John von Neumann proposed a modified version of the ENIAC. The modified version, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), would differ from the ENIAC in two profoundly important respects. First, the EDVAC would employ binary arithmetic. The MARK I and the ENIAC both used decimal arithmetic in all their calculations. VonNeumann showed that binary arithmetic would make for much simpler computer circuitry. Second, the EDVAC would have stored- program capability. He also proposed wiring a permanent set of instructions within the computer and placing these operations under a central control. He further proposed that the instructions codes governing the operations be stored in the same way that the data were stored - as binary numbers.
The EDVAC was not the first stored-program machine to go into operation. That honor went to an English-made computer, the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator).
4. COMPUTER GENERATIONS = Fourth-generation computers represent the state of the art today and the fifth generation is on the way. The term"generation" it refers to major developments in electronic data processing.
The Generation are:
With the beginning of the Korean War in 1950, the demand of many different kinds of computation increased greatly. The appearance of the first commercial computer, the UNIVAC, in 1951, marked the beginning of computers belonging to the first generation. The major innovation s then were the use of vacuum tubes in place of relays as a means of storing data in memory and the use of the stored-program concept. The addition of memory made the punched card system and the calculators virtually obsolete. The wire board was replaced by computer programs written in a new languages for processing.
No educational programs precisely met the requirements of the technology when the first generation computer became available. Early users were pioneering in the use of a new tool not designed specifically for their particular needs. Computer installations had to be staffed with a new breed of workers who initially had to cope with the necessity of preparing programs in a tedious machine language.
7. Second Generation Computers( 1959- 1964)
Solid-State components( transistors and diodes) and magnetic core storage formed the basis for the second generation of computers. The new transistor technology made the previous generation obsolete. A transistors performs the same functions as a vacuum tube, except that electrons move through solid materials instead of through a vacuum.
8. Third Generation Computers (1965- 1970)
Integrated solid-state circuitry, improved secondary storage devices, and new input/output devices were the most important advantages in this generation. The new circuitry increased the speed of the computer by a factor of about 10, 000 over the first generation computers. Arithmetic and logical operations were now being performed in microseconds or even nanoseconds.
9. Fourth Generation Computers ( 1970- Present)
The major innovations were in the development of microelectronics and in the development of different areas in computer technology such as; multiprocessing, multiprogramming, miniaturization, time-sharing, operating speed, and virtual storage. Because of microprocessors, the fourth generation includes large greater data processing capacity than equivalent-sized third generation computers .
The completed device was known as the MARK I digital computer. The first electromagnetic digital computer to be put into full operation was built as a secret wartime project. This machine, which used vacuum tubes, was called the "ENIAC" computer. Following the war, work began on the "EDVAC", a computer which worked on the stored program concept.
1. MARK I = The official name of MARK I was Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. It was approximately 50 feet long and 8 feet high, and consisted of some 700,000 moving parts and several hundreds miles of wiring. The MARK I could perform the four basic arithmetic operations and could locate information stored in tabular form. It processed numbers up to 23 digits long, and could multiply three eight-digit numbers in a second. Internal operations were controlled automatically with electromagnetic relays and the arithmetical counters were mechanical. It was not an electronic computer but was rather an electromechanical one since it was powered by an electric motor ans used switches ad relays. It was also the first automatic general-purpose digital computer.
2. THE ENIAC = was developed during the the period 1943 to 1946. It was the first Large - scale vacuum-tubes computer. The ENIAC is an acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator. It consisted of over 18,000 vacuum tubes and required the manual setting of switches to achieve desired results. It could perform 300 multiplications per second. Operating instructions were not stored internally; rather they were fed trough externally located plugboards and switches.
3. THE EDVAC = In 1946 a Hungarian-born mathematician John von Neumann proposed a modified version of the ENIAC. The modified version, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), would differ from the ENIAC in two profoundly important respects. First, the EDVAC would employ binary arithmetic. The MARK I and the ENIAC both used decimal arithmetic in all their calculations. VonNeumann showed that binary arithmetic would make for much simpler computer circuitry. Second, the EDVAC would have stored- program capability. He also proposed wiring a permanent set of instructions within the computer and placing these operations under a central control. He further proposed that the instructions codes governing the operations be stored in the same way that the data were stored - as binary numbers.
The EDVAC was not the first stored-program machine to go into operation. That honor went to an English-made computer, the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator).
4. COMPUTER GENERATIONS = Fourth-generation computers represent the state of the art today and the fifth generation is on the way. The term"generation" it refers to major developments in electronic data processing.
The Generation are:
- First Generation Computers
- Second Generation Computers
- Third Generation Computers
- Fourth Generation Computers
With the beginning of the Korean War in 1950, the demand of many different kinds of computation increased greatly. The appearance of the first commercial computer, the UNIVAC, in 1951, marked the beginning of computers belonging to the first generation. The major innovation s then were the use of vacuum tubes in place of relays as a means of storing data in memory and the use of the stored-program concept. The addition of memory made the punched card system and the calculators virtually obsolete. The wire board was replaced by computer programs written in a new languages for processing.
No educational programs precisely met the requirements of the technology when the first generation computer became available. Early users were pioneering in the use of a new tool not designed specifically for their particular needs. Computer installations had to be staffed with a new breed of workers who initially had to cope with the necessity of preparing programs in a tedious machine language.
7. Second Generation Computers( 1959- 1964)
Solid-State components( transistors and diodes) and magnetic core storage formed the basis for the second generation of computers. The new transistor technology made the previous generation obsolete. A transistors performs the same functions as a vacuum tube, except that electrons move through solid materials instead of through a vacuum.
8. Third Generation Computers (1965- 1970)
Integrated solid-state circuitry, improved secondary storage devices, and new input/output devices were the most important advantages in this generation. The new circuitry increased the speed of the computer by a factor of about 10, 000 over the first generation computers. Arithmetic and logical operations were now being performed in microseconds or even nanoseconds.
9. Fourth Generation Computers ( 1970- Present)
The major innovations were in the development of microelectronics and in the development of different areas in computer technology such as; multiprocessing, multiprogramming, miniaturization, time-sharing, operating speed, and virtual storage. Because of microprocessors, the fourth generation includes large greater data processing capacity than equivalent-sized third generation computers .
Monday, January 21, 2008
THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
The electronic digital computer has had, and continues to have, a profound impact not only on business and science but on society and general. History studies are extremely useful in evaluating that impact and understanding the process of change that leads to even more advanced technologies.
Thus, the study of history can help to explain what can and cannot be reasonably expected from technological developments.
THE EARLIEST COMPUTING DEVICES
The earliest data processing equipment will manual-mechanical devises due to the absence of electricity and adequate industrial technology.
1. Abacus = The first manual data processing device was the abacus which was developed in china. The device has a frame with beads strung on wires or rods and arithmetic calculations are performed by manipulating the beads.
2. Napier's Bones= John Napier was a Scottish mathematician who became famous for his invention of logarithms. The used of "logs" enabled him to reduce any multiplication problem. His "bones" are set of eleven rods side by side products and quotients of large numbers can be obtained. The sticks were called " Bones"because they were made of bone of ivory.
3. Oughtred's Slide Rule = Although the slide rule appeared in various forms of Europe during the seventeenth century. It consists of tow movable rulers placed side by side. Each ruler is marked off in such a way that the actual distances from the beginning of the ruler are proportional to the logarithms of the numbers printed on the ruler. By sliding the rulers one can quickly multiply and divide.
4. Pascal's Calculator= Blaise Pasacal was a French mathematician and experimental physicist who was one of the first modern scientists to developed and build calculator. He devised a calculating machine that was capable of adding and subtracting numbers. The machine was operated by dialing a series of wheels.
5. Leibniz's Calculator = Like Pascal, Gottfried Leibniz was a seventeenth -century scientist who recognized the value of building machines that could do mathematical calculations and save labor too.
6. Babbage's Analytical Engine = This machine was based on the principle that, for certain formulas, the difference between certain values is constant. This typed of procedure was used frequently for producing astronomical tables, which are particularly useful
7. Hollerith's Punched-Card Machine = Herman Hollerith, a statistician with the US Bureau of the Census, completed a set of machines to help process the results of the 1890 census. Using 3 by 5 inch punched cards to record the data, he constructed an electromagnetic counting machine to sort the data manually and tabulate the data.
Thus, the study of history can help to explain what can and cannot be reasonably expected from technological developments.
THE EARLIEST COMPUTING DEVICES
The earliest data processing equipment will manual-mechanical devises due to the absence of electricity and adequate industrial technology.
1. Abacus = The first manual data processing device was the abacus which was developed in china. The device has a frame with beads strung on wires or rods and arithmetic calculations are performed by manipulating the beads.
2. Napier's Bones= John Napier was a Scottish mathematician who became famous for his invention of logarithms. The used of "logs" enabled him to reduce any multiplication problem. His "bones" are set of eleven rods side by side products and quotients of large numbers can be obtained. The sticks were called " Bones"because they were made of bone of ivory.
3. Oughtred's Slide Rule = Although the slide rule appeared in various forms of Europe during the seventeenth century. It consists of tow movable rulers placed side by side. Each ruler is marked off in such a way that the actual distances from the beginning of the ruler are proportional to the logarithms of the numbers printed on the ruler. By sliding the rulers one can quickly multiply and divide.
4. Pascal's Calculator= Blaise Pasacal was a French mathematician and experimental physicist who was one of the first modern scientists to developed and build calculator. He devised a calculating machine that was capable of adding and subtracting numbers. The machine was operated by dialing a series of wheels.
5. Leibniz's Calculator = Like Pascal, Gottfried Leibniz was a seventeenth -century scientist who recognized the value of building machines that could do mathematical calculations and save labor too.
6. Babbage's Analytical Engine = This machine was based on the principle that, for certain formulas, the difference between certain values is constant. This typed of procedure was used frequently for producing astronomical tables, which are particularly useful
7. Hollerith's Punched-Card Machine = Herman Hollerith, a statistician with the US Bureau of the Census, completed a set of machines to help process the results of the 1890 census. Using 3 by 5 inch punched cards to record the data, he constructed an electromagnetic counting machine to sort the data manually and tabulate the data.
Saturday, January 19, 2008
METHODS OF PROCESSING DATA
Different methods are now used in data processing employing quick response digital computer systems. These methods have been developed to increase the timeless, effectiveness, and availability of information. They allow users to react more rapidly to changing conditions, reduce waste in the use of time and other resources, and permit quick follow-up o creative ideas.
1. Batch Processing. Batch processing is a technique in which data to be processed or programs to be executed are collected into groups to permit convenient, efficient, and serial processing. It is the simplest form of data processing. With this method, data is entered into the information flow in a large volumes, or batches.
Advantages of Batch Processing
a. Economical when a large volume of data must be processed
b. the most appropriate methods for those application( e.g. payroll) where the delay caused by accumulating data into batches does not reduce the value of the information.
Limitations of batch processing
a. It requires sorting prior to processing.
b. reduces timeless in some instances it takes a fixed time interval before current data is added, and requires cannot be effectively made between processing intervals
c. requires sequential file organization this may prove to be handicap if the current status of a record near the end of a file needs to be determined.
2. On-line Processing. The term on-line refers to equipment or devices under the direct control of the central processing unit(CPU) of a computer. An on-line operation, then is one which uses devises directly connected to the CPU either for data entry or inquiry purposes. That is, with a terminal we can either enter data or inquire about the status of some record or file that is stored by the computer.
On-line processing has been developed for certain uses as an answer to the batch processing deficiencies. Information contained in any record is accessible to the user without the necessity of a sequential search of the file and with a fraction of a second after the inquiry message has been transmitted. Thus, on-line processing systems may feature random and rapid input of transactions and immediate and direct access to record contents as needed. However, on-line processing and direct access to records require unique hardware ans software. It will also require software security provisions to prevent confidential information from falling into unauthorized hands and prevent deliberate or accidental tampering with data and program files.
3. Real-time Processing. Real-time processing is a method of data processing which has the capability of a fast response to obtain data from an activity or a physical process, perform computations, and return response rapidly enough to effect the outcome of the activity or process.
4. Distributed Processing. The most complex level of computer processing, distributed processing, generally consists of remote terminals linked to a large central computer system to help the user conduct inquiries about accounts, process jobs, or other data processing operations.
In distributed processing network a large number of computers and significant software resources is being shared among a large number of users. It may be used of be used by a single organizations.
Advantages of distributed systems are:
1. Central processor idle time is reduced.
2. sophisticated computers and growing library of applications programs may be immediately available to end-users whenever needed.
3. skilled professionals are available to help users developed their own specialized applications.
4. managers maybe able to react more rapidly to new developments and interact with the system i order to seek solutions to unusual problems.
Disadvantages
1. the reliability and cost of the data communications facilities used, and the cost and quality of the computing service received, may e disappointing in some cases.
2. input/output terminals are often rather slow and inefficient.
3. provisions for protecting the confidentiality and integrity and integrity of user programs and data files are generally ineffective against a skilled penetrator.
1. Batch Processing. Batch processing is a technique in which data to be processed or programs to be executed are collected into groups to permit convenient, efficient, and serial processing. It is the simplest form of data processing. With this method, data is entered into the information flow in a large volumes, or batches.
Advantages of Batch Processing
a. Economical when a large volume of data must be processed
b. the most appropriate methods for those application( e.g. payroll) where the delay caused by accumulating data into batches does not reduce the value of the information.
Limitations of batch processing
a. It requires sorting prior to processing.
b. reduces timeless in some instances it takes a fixed time interval before current data is added, and requires cannot be effectively made between processing intervals
c. requires sequential file organization this may prove to be handicap if the current status of a record near the end of a file needs to be determined.
2. On-line Processing. The term on-line refers to equipment or devices under the direct control of the central processing unit(CPU) of a computer. An on-line operation, then is one which uses devises directly connected to the CPU either for data entry or inquiry purposes. That is, with a terminal we can either enter data or inquire about the status of some record or file that is stored by the computer.
On-line processing has been developed for certain uses as an answer to the batch processing deficiencies. Information contained in any record is accessible to the user without the necessity of a sequential search of the file and with a fraction of a second after the inquiry message has been transmitted. Thus, on-line processing systems may feature random and rapid input of transactions and immediate and direct access to record contents as needed. However, on-line processing and direct access to records require unique hardware ans software. It will also require software security provisions to prevent confidential information from falling into unauthorized hands and prevent deliberate or accidental tampering with data and program files.
3. Real-time Processing. Real-time processing is a method of data processing which has the capability of a fast response to obtain data from an activity or a physical process, perform computations, and return response rapidly enough to effect the outcome of the activity or process.
4. Distributed Processing. The most complex level of computer processing, distributed processing, generally consists of remote terminals linked to a large central computer system to help the user conduct inquiries about accounts, process jobs, or other data processing operations.
In distributed processing network a large number of computers and significant software resources is being shared among a large number of users. It may be used of be used by a single organizations.
Advantages of distributed systems are:
1. Central processor idle time is reduced.
2. sophisticated computers and growing library of applications programs may be immediately available to end-users whenever needed.
3. skilled professionals are available to help users developed their own specialized applications.
4. managers maybe able to react more rapidly to new developments and interact with the system i order to seek solutions to unusual problems.
Disadvantages
1. the reliability and cost of the data communications facilities used, and the cost and quality of the computing service received, may e disappointing in some cases.
2. input/output terminals are often rather slow and inefficient.
3. provisions for protecting the confidentiality and integrity and integrity of user programs and data files are generally ineffective against a skilled penetrator.
Monday, January 14, 2008
AREAS OF DATA PROCESSING
Data processing maybe classified as either scientific or business in nature.
1. Business Data Processing (DBP). Business data processing is characterized by the need to established, retain, and process files of data for producing useful information. Generally, it involves a large volume of output. For example, a large retail store must maintain a record for each customer who purchases on account.
2. Scientific Data Processing (SDP). In science, data processing involves a limited volume of input and many logical or arithmetic calculations.
3. Data Processing Operations
A data processing processing procedure normally consists of number of basic processing operations performed in some order. The means of manual, electromechanical, or electronic methods are used. Many businesses find that the best solution to their processing requirements is to use a combination of methods.
A. Recoding. Recording refers to the transfer of data onto some form or document. It relatives to the documentation of intermediate figures and facts resulting from calculations.
B. Verifying. Since recording is usually a manual operation it is important that recorded data be carefully checked for any errors. This operations called verifying.
C. Duplicating. It is sometimes necessary or desirable to copy or duplicate data. This operation consists in reproducing the data onto many forms or documents. Duplicating maybe done while the data being recorded manually, or it may be done afterwards by some machines
D. Classifying. This operation separates data into various categories. Identifying and arranging items witch like characteristic into groups or classes is called classifying.
E. Sorting. Arranging data in a specific order is called sorting. After the data are classified, it is usually necessary to arrange or rearrange them in a predetermined sequence to facilitate processing. Sorting is done in an alphabetic or numeric order and the data item which determines the sorting is called the key. Numeric sorting usually requires less time than alphabetic sorting in machine-based processing systems and it therefore generally used.
F. Calculating. Arithmetic manipulation of the data is known as calculating. It is a crucial phase of data manipulation, because the outcome of this operation becomes part of the output. In the calculation of an employee's pay.
G. Summarizing and Reporting. In this operation, a collection of data is condensed and certain conclusions from the data are represented in a meaningful format. To be a value, data must often be condensed or sifted so that the resulting output reports will be clear, concise and effective. Reducing masses of data to a more usable form is called summarizing.
H. Merging. This operation takes two or more sets of data, all sets having been sorted by the same key, and puts them together to form a single sorted set of data.
I. Storing. Placing similar data into files for future reference is storing. Storage is done by any o the following methods;
a. manual - such as in a ledger book, b. electromechanical- in the form of punched cards and c. electronic- by magnetic tape, disk, and main memory of the computer. Data should be stored only if the value of having them in the future exceeds the storage cost.
J. Retrieving. Recovering stored data and/ or information when needed is the retrieving step. Retrieval methods range from searches made by file clerks to the use of quick responding inquiry terminals that are connected directly to a computer .
K. Feedback. Feedback is the comparison of the outputs. and the goal set in advance ; any discrepancy is analyzed, corrected, and feedback to the proper stage in the processing operation.
1. Business Data Processing (DBP). Business data processing is characterized by the need to established, retain, and process files of data for producing useful information. Generally, it involves a large volume of output. For example, a large retail store must maintain a record for each customer who purchases on account.
2. Scientific Data Processing (SDP). In science, data processing involves a limited volume of input and many logical or arithmetic calculations.
3. Data Processing Operations
A data processing processing procedure normally consists of number of basic processing operations performed in some order. The means of manual, electromechanical, or electronic methods are used. Many businesses find that the best solution to their processing requirements is to use a combination of methods.
A. Recoding. Recording refers to the transfer of data onto some form or document. It relatives to the documentation of intermediate figures and facts resulting from calculations.
B. Verifying. Since recording is usually a manual operation it is important that recorded data be carefully checked for any errors. This operations called verifying.
C. Duplicating. It is sometimes necessary or desirable to copy or duplicate data. This operation consists in reproducing the data onto many forms or documents. Duplicating maybe done while the data being recorded manually, or it may be done afterwards by some machines
D. Classifying. This operation separates data into various categories. Identifying and arranging items witch like characteristic into groups or classes is called classifying.
E. Sorting. Arranging data in a specific order is called sorting. After the data are classified, it is usually necessary to arrange or rearrange them in a predetermined sequence to facilitate processing. Sorting is done in an alphabetic or numeric order and the data item which determines the sorting is called the key. Numeric sorting usually requires less time than alphabetic sorting in machine-based processing systems and it therefore generally used.
F. Calculating. Arithmetic manipulation of the data is known as calculating. It is a crucial phase of data manipulation, because the outcome of this operation becomes part of the output. In the calculation of an employee's pay.
G. Summarizing and Reporting. In this operation, a collection of data is condensed and certain conclusions from the data are represented in a meaningful format. To be a value, data must often be condensed or sifted so that the resulting output reports will be clear, concise and effective. Reducing masses of data to a more usable form is called summarizing.
H. Merging. This operation takes two or more sets of data, all sets having been sorted by the same key, and puts them together to form a single sorted set of data.
I. Storing. Placing similar data into files for future reference is storing. Storage is done by any o the following methods;
a. manual - such as in a ledger book, b. electromechanical- in the form of punched cards and c. electronic- by magnetic tape, disk, and main memory of the computer. Data should be stored only if the value of having them in the future exceeds the storage cost.
J. Retrieving. Recovering stored data and/ or information when needed is the retrieving step. Retrieval methods range from searches made by file clerks to the use of quick responding inquiry terminals that are connected directly to a computer .
K. Feedback. Feedback is the comparison of the outputs. and the goal set in advance ; any discrepancy is analyzed, corrected, and feedback to the proper stage in the processing operation.
EXPANDED DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
Frequently, three more steps are added to the basic data processing cycle to obtain the expanded data processing cycle.
1. Origination. Origination is a step which refers to the process of collecting the original data, An original recording of the data is called a source document.
2. DISTRIBUTION. This step which refers to the distribution of the output data. Recordings of the output data are often called report documents.
3. STORAGE. Storage is crucial in many data processing procedures. Data processing results are frequently placed in storage to be used as input data for further processing at a later date. The two flow lines between the processing box and the storage box indicate the interaction of these two steps. A unified set of data in storage is called a file. Usually a file consist of a collection of records, where each record contains similar data items, and a collection of related files called a data base.
1. Origination. Origination is a step which refers to the process of collecting the original data, An original recording of the data is called a source document.
2. DISTRIBUTION. This step which refers to the distribution of the output data. Recordings of the output data are often called report documents.
3. STORAGE. Storage is crucial in many data processing procedures. Data processing results are frequently placed in storage to be used as input data for further processing at a later date. The two flow lines between the processing box and the storage box indicate the interaction of these two steps. A unified set of data in storage is called a file. Usually a file consist of a collection of records, where each record contains similar data items, and a collection of related files called a data base.
Sunday, January 13, 2008
DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
Regardless of the kind of data processed or the kind of device or equipment used, all data processing systems involve at least three basic steps : Input, Processing, and Output. These three steps constitute the data processing cycle.
1. INPUT=In this steps the initial data, or input data, are prepared in some convenient form of processing. The form will defend on the processing machine.
For example, when electromechanical devises are used.
2. PROCESSING= In this step the input data are changed, and usually combined with other information, to produce data is more useful form. Thus, paychecks may be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month maybe calculated from the sales orders. The processing step usually involves a sequence of certain basic processing operations.
3. OUTPUT= Here the results of the preceding processing steps are collected. The particular form of the output data depends on the use of data.
1. INPUT=In this steps the initial data, or input data, are prepared in some convenient form of processing. The form will defend on the processing machine.
For example, when electromechanical devises are used.
2. PROCESSING= In this step the input data are changed, and usually combined with other information, to produce data is more useful form. Thus, paychecks may be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month maybe calculated from the sales orders. The processing step usually involves a sequence of certain basic processing operations.
3. OUTPUT= Here the results of the preceding processing steps are collected. The particular form of the output data depends on the use of data.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Data is defined as any collection of facts. Thus, sales reports, inventory figures, test scores, customers, names and address, and weather reports are all examples of data. Data processing is the manipulation of data into more useful form. It is the modern name for paperwork and involves the collecting processing, an distributing of facts and figures to achieve a desired reports.
Data Processing includes not only numerical calculations but also operations such as the classification of data and the transmission of data from one place to another.
Data processing system refers to the equipment or devices and procedures by which the result is achieved.
Data Processing includes not only numerical calculations but also operations such as the classification of data and the transmission of data from one place to another.
Data processing system refers to the equipment or devices and procedures by which the result is achieved.
Saturday, January 12, 2008
CATEGORIES OF DATA PROCESSING
Modern data processing employing machines and other devices falls into two basics categories, mechanical data processing and electronic data processing. In some data processing operations, all work is still done using manual procedures.
A major difference between the two categories is that the mechanical system usually require constant manual intervention between the different data processing operations, whereas in an electronic system the different operations are performed automatically with a minimum manual intervention.
The types of machine employed in either system usually vary from one user to another. However most of the general concepts in data processing still remain applicable.
A major difference between the two categories is that the mechanical system usually require constant manual intervention between the different data processing operations, whereas in an electronic system the different operations are performed automatically with a minimum manual intervention.
The types of machine employed in either system usually vary from one user to another. However most of the general concepts in data processing still remain applicable.
DATA PROCESSING
All through the different stages of civilization, man has always tried to look for ways to simplify work and to solve problems more efficiently. Many problems involve numbers and quantities, so man started looking for easier ways to count, and to add, subtract, multiply, and divide. AS society has grown both size and complexity, so has the data that is generated within it.
Data is off little value if it remains in the form of quantities and numbers.Data is processed to produce accurate records.
Data is off little value if it remains in the form of quantities and numbers.Data is processed to produce accurate records.
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER CONCEPTS
The deferent lessons focus on major topics, such us data processing, history and classification of computers, capabilities and limitations of computers, computer systems hardware, data recording, media, computer system software, algorithms, number system and an introduction to basic language programming and you can also learn from here all basic information to all programming languages.
I believe that you will learn a lot of things to this site and it can help your self to know what is computer is all about.
I believe that you will learn a lot of things to this site and it can help your self to know what is computer is all about.
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